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Grammify

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Word Classes

Determiners & Function Words

Determiners, prepositions, the two kinds of conjunction, and particles have little meaning of their own, but almost every sentence needs them. They form five coarse categories that share eight fine tags. The hard part is that one spelling can do several jobs: that takes three tags, to two, and the tag IN belongs to two categories.

What you’ll learn

  • Tell a determiner from a pronoun, and a predeterminer from a determiner
  • Read IN as either a preposition or a subordinating conjunction from what follows it
  • Tell a coordinating conjunction from a subordinating one
  • Tag to as TO or IN, a phrasal-verb particle as RP, and the possessive 's as POS
  • Give that its correct tag in each of its three jobs

Closed classes

Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are open classes: English adds new ones every year. The categories on this page are closed. Their lists are short and almost never change, so the parser does not have to guess what a word is. It only decides which job the word is doing in this sentence.

Many of these words do more than one job. The word that is a determiner in that pan. It is a relative pronoun in the tools that we borrowed, and a subordinating conjunction in I doubt that the shop is open. One word, three tags: the words around it decide which tag is right.

Five categories, eight tags

DET Determiner

A word that comes before a noun and tells you which one, how many or whose. The list below is the whole category.

Every word in DET

  • Articles (DT): a, an, the
  • Demonstratives, before a noun (DT): this, that, these, those
  • Quantifiers, before a noun (DT): some, any, no, every, each, either, neither, another, all, both
  • Predeterminers (PDT): all, both, half, such, quite, rather, many, before another determiner
  • Wh-words, before a noun (WDT): which, what, whatever, whichever; and whose (WP$)
  • Not DET: my, your, his, her, its, our, their are PRON. Much, many, several, few, little, enough before a noun are adjectives (ADJ), and a number is NUM.

A determiner always has a noun after it: every cannot stand alone. When that or this stands alone, it is a pronoun instead (see DT below).

How the parser decides: a closed list, plus what follows. A possessive like her or their is PRON here, not DET (see PRP$), but whose is DET. Your textbook may call her and their possessive adjectives (adjetivos posesivos in Spanish). The drills follow the model, so answer PRON.

Every (DET, ringed)guest (NOUN)brought (VERB)a (DET, ringed)dish (NOUN)for (ADP)the (DET, ringed)table (NOUN).

Which (DET, ringed)coat (NOUN)is (AUX)yours (PRON)?

Not every word of quantity is a determiner. Much, many, several and few are adjectives, even though they stand where a determiner would:

Much (ADJ, ringed)water (NOUN)was (AUX)wasted (VERB).

DT Determiner

The ordinary determiner: articles, demonstratives and most quantifiers. It is one of the most common tags, because so many noun phrases begin with one.

How the parser decides: the word is on the list and a noun follows. A demonstrative can also stand alone, with no noun after it, and then it is a pronoun. The tag stays DT, but the coarse category becomes PRON: the fine scale records the word, and the coarse scale records the job.

Every word tagged DT

  • a, an, the, this, that, these, those, some, any, no, every, each, either, neither, another, all, both
  • Not DT: a word before another determiner (all the, such a) is PDT; which, what, whatever and whichever are WDT; and my, your, our and the other possessives are PRP$.

That (DET, ringed)idea (NOUN)worked (VERB).

That (PRON, ringed)worked (VERB).

On the tag scale, each ringed word below is a DT with its noun after it:

The (DT, ringed)dog (NN)chased (VBD)a (DT, ringed)squirrel (NN)around (IN)this (DT, ringed)yard (NN).

Some (DT, ringed)birds (NNS)fly (VBP)south (RB)each (DT, ringed)winter (NN).

No (DT, ringed)bus (NN)stops (VBZ)on (IN)this (DT)road (NN).

WDT Wh-determiner

A wh-determiner has two uses. It can open a relative clause: which or that right after a noun, as in the book which you lent me. It can also come before a noun in a question: Which road leads to the coast?

How the parser decides: by the job the word does. In a relative clause, the word stands for the noun before it: in the tools that we borrowed, that stands for the tools (we borrowed the tools). So it is WDT, with the coarse category PRON. Before a noun, as in which road, it is WDT with the coarse category DET. Standing alone in a question, which is still WDT (Which do you want?), with the coarse category PRON.

Every word tagged WDT

  • which, in every use
  • that, when it opens a relative clause (the tools that we borrowed)
  • what, whatever, whichever, before a noun: What time is it?, whichever seat you like
  • Not WDT: what or whatever standing alone is WP; that before a noun is DT, and that opening a noun clause is IN.

The (DT)book (NN)which (WDT, ringed)you (PRP)lent (VBD)me (PRP)was (VBD)superb (JJ).

The (DT)tools (NNS)that (WDT, ringed)we (PRP)borrowed (VBD)belong (VBP)to (IN)Sam (NNP).

Take (VB)whichever (WDT, ringed)seat (NN)you (PRP)like (VBP).

PDT Predeterminer

A predeterminer comes before another determiner and tells you how much, how many or what kind. Examples: all the cookies, half the class, such a day, quite a crowd, both the pies. The test is the position. The same all directly before a noun (all cookies) is plain DT.

How the parser decides: a word from that small set, followed by a, the, a demonstrative or a possessive: all my friends and both my parents are PDT too.

Every word tagged PDT

  • all, both, half: all the cookies, both my parents, half an hour
  • such, quite, rather, before a or an: such a day, quite a crowd, rather a nuisance
  • many, in the old-fashioned many a: many a sailor
  • Not PDT: the same words with a noun straight after them. All cookies and both cats are DT; such people and many sailors are JJ.

All (PDT, ringed)the (DT)cookies (NNS)vanished (VBD)before (IN)noon (NN).

Half (PDT, ringed)the (DT)class (NN)was (VBD)absent (JJ)on (IN)Monday (NNP).

Such (PDT, ringed)a (DT)day (NN)deserves (VBZ)a (DT)celebration (NN).

It (PRP)was (VBD)quite (PDT, ringed)a (DT)shock (NN).

ADP Adposition (preposition)

An adposition is the general name for a word like under or during. In English these words come before their noun phrase, so they are called prepositions. A preposition relates a noun phrase to the rest of the sentence: place (under the porch), time (during the storm, until noon), direction or possession. The noun phrase after it is its object, and together they form a prepositional phrase.

How the parser decides: a word from the preposition list with a noun phrase after it. Its fine tag is nearly always IN. The one other fine tag in this category is RP, the particle of a phrasal verb (took off). It counts as ADP even though it has no object.

Every preposition in ADP: open the full list
  • Place and direction: aboard, above, across, against, along, alongside, amid, among, amongst, around, at, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, down, from, in, inside, into, near, off, on, onto, opposite, out, outside, over, past, round, through, throughout, to, toward, towards, under, underneath, up, upon, via, within
  • Time: after, before, during, since, till, until, and several of the words above: at noon, by Friday, from May, in June, on Monday, through May
  • Other relations: about, as, besides, despite, except, for, like, of, per, than, unlike, versus, with, without, notwithstanding; vs., the short form of versus; because in because of; and but meaning “except” (all but one)
  • Phrasal-verb particles (RP): about, across, along, around, aside, away, back, by, down, forth, in, off, on, out, over, round, through, together, up
  • ADP or SCONJ: a preposition is ADP when it introduces a prepositional phrase, a noun phrase after it: since dawn, despite the rain, after the match. The same word is SCONJ only when it opens a dependent clause, with its own subject and verb: since you called, after the match ended.
  • Not ADP: including, according, concerning, regarding, following are -ing forms of verbs (VERB, VBG). Ago and next (in next to) are adverbs, and worth is an adjective.

The (DET)cat (NOUN)slept (VERB)under (ADP, ringed)the (DET)porch (NOUN)during (ADP, ringed)the (DET)storm (NOUN).

Two prepositions, one of place and one of time:

She (PRON)walked (VERB)through (ADP, ringed)the (DET)park (NOUN)after (ADP, ringed)lunch (NOUN).

A less common preposition, and a word that only looks like one. Including does a preposition’s job, but it is the -ing form of a verb:

We (PRON)flew (VERB)to (ADP)Lima (PROPN)via (ADP, ringed)Madrid (PROPN).

Ten (NUM)people (NOUN)came (VERB),including (VERB, ringed)Tom (PROPN).

Despite never opens a clause. With a noun phrase after it, it introduces a prepositional phrase like any other preposition:

Despite (ADP, ringed)the (DET)rain (NOUN),we (PRON)played (VERB).

IN Preposition or subordinating conjunction

Preposition or subordinating conjunction: the Penn tag set gives both jobs one tag, so the tag’s name is a pair. A preposition introduces a noun phrase; a subordinating conjunction introduces a clause. Many words can do both, such as after, before and until.

How the parser decides: the fine tag stays IN. The real decision is the coarse category, and for that the parser looks at what comes next. Followed by a noun phrase, the word is ADP. Followed by a clause with its own subject and verb, it is SCONJ. These two sentences differ by one word:

Priya (PROPN)rested (VERB)after (ADP, ringed)the (DET)match (NOUN).

Priya (PROPN)rested (VERB)after (SCONJ, ringed)the (DET)match (NOUN)ended (VERB).

In the second sentence, the match has its own verb, ended, so it is the subject of a clause, and after introduces that clause. Always look past the first noun phrase before you decide. The chips below show more prepositions on the tag scale; more clause readings follow under SCONJ.

The (DT)keys (NNS)are (VBP)under (IN, ringed)the (DT)mat (NN)near (IN, ringed)the (DT)door (NN).

The (DT)meeting (NN)lasted (VBD)until (IN, ringed)noon (NN).

Every word tagged IN

  • Every preposition: the full list is under ADP above: open “Every preposition in ADP”. Before a noun phrase, each one is ADP on the coarse scale, despite and since included.
  • Every subordinating conjunction except the wh-words: the list is under SCONJ below.
  • Not IN: the to of an infinitive is TO, a phrasal-verb particle is RP, and when, where, why, how are WRB.

SCONJ Subordinating conj.

A subordinating conjunction attaches a dependent clause to the clause it depends on. The common ones are because, if, although, whether and that, plus the wh-adverbs when, where, why and how. The clause it introduces cannot stand alone as a sentence.

How the parser decides: a conjunction-like word followed by a subject and a verb. The fine tag is IN for the ordinary subordinating conjunctions and WRB for the wh-adverbs. This model puts the wh-adverbs in SCONJ, not ADV, even when they open a direct question that stands alone: Where does Omar work?

In the dependency tree, a subordinating conjunction tagged IN is labelled mark. A wh-adverb is labelled advmod, because it also works as an adverb inside its own clause. In Call me when the parcel arrives, when gives the time of arrives.

In a Reed-Kellogg diagram, the conjunction of an adverb clause sits on the dashed line that joins the two clauses. A noun clause’s that sits on a short line above the clause instead.

Every word in SCONJ

  • Subordinating conjunctions (IN), when they open a clause: after, although, as, because, before, for, if, lest, like, once, since, than, that, though, till, unless, until, whereas, whether, while, whilst, with, and the so of so that
  • Wh-adverbs (WRB), in every use: when, where, why, how, whenever, wherever, whereby, wherein, and however in however hard
  • Not SCONJ: any of these words followed by only a noun phrase introduces a prepositional phrase, so it is ADP: after the match, since dawn, till noon. So are despite, except, besides and upon, which never open a clause. And, or, but, nor, yet are CCONJ, and so between two clauses is an adverb, ADV.

We (PRON)stayed (VERB)inside (ADV)because (SCONJ, ringed)the (DET)wind (NOUN)was (AUX)fierce (ADJ).

The (DET)ice (NOUN)will (AUX)melt (VERB)if (SCONJ, ringed)the (DET)sun (NOUN)comes (VERB)out (ADP).

Call (VERB)me (PRON)when (SCONJ, ringed)the (DET)parcel (NOUN)arrives (VERB).

One word, both categories. In the first sentence since opens a clause with its own subject and verb (you called), so it is SCONJ. In the second only a noun phrase follows it, so it introduces a prepositional phrase and is ADP:

We (PRON)have (AUX)waited (VERB)since (SCONJ, ringed)you (PRON)called (VERB).

We (PRON)have (AUX)waited (VERB)since (ADP, ringed)dawn (NOUN).

The same tag, IN, on its subordinating side — a clause follows in each case, and the coarse category changes to match:

We (PRP)left (VBD)early (RB)because (IN, ringed)the (DT)roads (NNS)were (VBD)icy (JJ).

Although (IN, ringed)it (PRP)rained (VBD),the (DT)picnic (NN)went (VBD)ahead (RB).

I (PRP)doubt (VBP)that (IN, ringed)the (DT)shop (NN)is (VBZ)open (JJ).

CCONJ Coordinating conj.

A coordinating conjunction joins two things of equal rank — two nouns, two verbs, two adjectives, or two whole clauses. There are seven: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Many students remember them as FANBOYS, from their first letters.

How the parser decides: the word is and, but, or, nor or yet, between two equal parts. The parser reads the other two differently: for between two clauses is a subordinating conjunction (SCONJ/IN), like because, and so is an adverb (ADV/RB).

Some conjunctions work in pairs, called correlative pairs: neither…nor, either…or, both…and. The first word of neither…nor and either…or is also CCONJ and CC: Either Nina or Omar will drive. Its dependency label is preconj; the middle word is an ordinary cc. Both is less regular: the parser tags it CC, DT or PDT. See Coordination.

Rain (NOUN)fell (VERB),yet (CCONJ, ringed)the (DET)crowd (NOUN)stayed (VERB)and (CCONJ, ringed)cheered (VERB).

The conjunction joining two whole clauses, with the comma before it:

We (PRON)packed (VERB)the (DET)car (NOUN),and (CCONJ, ringed)the (DET)dog (NOUN)jumped (VERB)in (ADP).

CC Coordinating conjunction

The coordinating conjunction tag. CC and CCONJ always go together, so the two scales agree completely here. Only a few categories are that simple.

How the parser decides: the word list. The ampersand (&) is also CC. So is a plus sign between two nouns, as in flour + water: the parser reads + as and.

Every word tagged CC (and so in CCONJ)

  • and, or, but, nor, yet
  • either, neither, both, as the first half of a pair: either…or, neither…nor, both…and
  • &, + and and/or, and plus and minus between two numbers: Two plus two is four
  • Not CC: for between two clauses is SCONJ, and so is RB. With no second half, either, neither and both are DT (or PDT, before another determiner: both the cats).

Sam (NNP)bought (VBD)apples (NNS)and (CC, ringed)pears (NNS)but (CC, ringed)no (DT)plums (NNS).

Neither (CC, ringed)the (DT)cat (NN)nor (CC, ringed)the (DT)dog (NN)stirred (VBD).

Bring (VB)salt (NN)and/or (CC, ringed)pepper (NN).

Two (CD)plus (CC, ringed)two (CD)is (VBZ)four (CD).

PART Particle

A particle — a function word that fits no other category: the infinitive marker to, the negator not (and n’t), and the possessive ending ’s. They have no meaning to describe, only a grammatical effect, and each is a single fixed word.

How the parser decides: each of the three is a lookup. Their fine tags differ: to is TO and ’s is POS, both described below. The negator not is RB, an adverb tag, so its entry is with the adverbs: RB on the Adjectives & Adverbs page. The phrasal-verb particle off in took off is RP, but on the coarse scale it is ADP, not PART.

Every word in PART

  • The to of an infinitive, and its informal spellings: the na of gonna and the ta of gotta (TO)
  • The negators not and n’t (RB)
  • The possessive ’s, and the apostrophe alone after a plural in -s (POS)
  • Not PART: a phrasal-verb particle is ADP, and never is an adverb, ADV.

Nora (PROPN)decided (VERB)not (PART, ringed)to (PART, ringed)answer (VERB)the (DET)phone (NOUN).

Sara (PROPN)'s (PART, ringed)brother (NOUN)does (AUX)not (PART, ringed)like (VERB)olives (NOUN).

Spanish no becomes two different words in English. Not goes with a verb: I do not like olives, never I no like olives ✗. The determiner no (DT) goes with a noun: no plums.

TO Infinitive marker 'to'

The infinitive marker to — the to of to travel, to relax, to answer. It has its own tag because the Penn set separates it from the preposition to of to Peru, which is IN.

How the parser decides: to followed by a base-form verb is TO; to followed by a noun phrase is IN. The first example has one of each. See Infinitives.

Every word tagged TO

  • to, before a verb
  • The na of gonna and the ta of gotta: the parser splits each into two words, as if it were going to or got to
  • Not TO: to before a noun phrase (to Peru) is the preposition, IN.

Liam (NNP)hopes (VBZ)to (TO, ringed)travel (VB)to (IN, ringed)Peru (NNP).

The (DT)dentist (NN)asked (VBD)me (PRP)to (TO, ringed)relax (VB).

Priya (NNP)looks (VBZ)forward (RB)to (IN, ringed)visiting (VBG)Lima (NNP).

In informal English, gonna is two words to the parser, and its second half is the infinitive marker:

I (PRP)'m (VBP)gon (VBG)na (TO, ringed)leave (VB)soon (RB).

RP Particle

The particle of a phrasal verb — the off of took off and turn off, the up of gave up. It looks like a preposition, but it has no object of its own; it belongs to the verb. The test is movement: turn off the light can become turn the light off, and no real preposition can move like that.

With a pronoun object, the particle must go after the pronoun: Diego turned it off, never turned off it ✗. Spanish has no phrasal verbs, so this word order is a common mistake for Spanish speakers.

How the parser decides: a preposition-shaped word that forms a phrasal verb with the verb before it, either right after the verb or after its object. The coarse category is ADP, not PART: the tag says particle, the category says preposition. Its dependency label is prt.

Every word tagged RP

  • about, across, along, around, aside, away, back, by, down, forth, in, off, on, out, over, round, through, together, up
  • Not RP: the same words with their own noun phrase after them are prepositions, IN: walked off the stage. Ahead, apart and forward after a verb are adverbs, RB: go ahead.

The (DT)plane (NN)took (VBD)off (RP, ringed)before (IN)sunrise (NN).

Please (UH)turn (VB)off (RP, ringed)the (DT)light (NN).

The (DT)engine (NN)gave (VBD)up (RP, ringed)halfway (RB)home (RB).

A particle can end a passive sentence, with no object anywhere:

The (DT)meeting (NN)was (VBD)called (VBN)off (RP, ringed).

POS Possessive ending

The possessive ending ’s — and the bare apostrophe of a plural possessive like the wolves’ den. The parser splits it from its noun, so mayor’s is two tokens: mayor (NN) and ’s (POS). On screen the two are drawn joined, but in the Tags exercise you click each half.

How the parser decides: an ’s after a noun that is not a contracted is or has. That’s her car has an ’s that is a verb (VBZ); Jay’s car has one that is POS. Its dependency label is case, and the diagram fuses it back onto its noun. See Possessives & Appositives.

Every word tagged POS

  • ’s, and the apostrophe alone after a plural in -s: the wolves’ den
  • Not POS: the ’s of is or has is a verb (VBZ), and the ’s of Let’s is the pronoun us (PRP).

The (DT)mayor (NN)'s (POS, ringed)speech (NN)ran (VBD)long (RB).

The (DT)children (NNS)'s (POS, ringed)laughter (NN)filled (VBD)the (DT)hall (NN).

James (NNP)'s (POS, ringed)bicycle (NN)has (VBZ)a (DT)flat (JJ)tyre (NN).

After a plural in -s, the apostrophe alone is the possessive:

The (DT)twins (NNS)' (POS, ringed)bikes (NNS)vanished (VBD).

Quick check

  1. In (a) and (b), is those a determiner (DET) or a pronoun (PRON)? In (c), what is the fine tag of all? (a) I want those shoes. (b) I want those. (c) I want all those shoes.
    Answer
    (a) DET: a noun, shoes, follows it. (b) PRON: no noun follows, so those stands alone. Its fine tag is still DT. (c) PDT, a predeterminer: all comes before another determiner, those.
  2. Is until a preposition (ADP) or a subordinating conjunction (SCONJ) in each sentence? (a) The café stays open until midnight. (b) Stay here until the taxi arrives.
    Answer
    (a) ADP: a noun phrase, midnight, follows it. (b) SCONJ: a whole clause follows it, with its own subject (the taxi) and verb (arrives). The fine tag is IN both times; only the coarse category changes.
  3. Give the fine tags of ’s, off and to in Santiago’s mother switched off the lights to save money.
    Answer
    The ending ’s is POS: the possessive, split from Santiago. The word off is RP, a phrasal-verb particle: it can move after the object (switched the lights off). The word to is TO, because a base-form verb, save, follows it.
  4. Give the fine tag of that in each sentence. (a) That bakery opens early. (b) The bread that Marta bought was fresh. (c) Marta said that the bread was fresh.
    Answer
    (a) DT, a determiner: a noun, bakery, follows it. (b) WDT: it opens a relative clause and stands for the bread inside it (Marta bought the bread), so which could replace it. (c) IN: it opens a noun clause, the thing Marta said, and which cannot replace it.

Key terms

Closed class
A word class with a fixed membership — determiners, prepositions, conjunctions, particles. The parser looks the word up and then decides which of its jobs it is doing. The keys were in the drawer. — the and in belong to closed classes. She left because it rained. — so does because.
Determiner
A word that comes before a noun and tells you which one, how many or whose. DT, WDT or PDT. The printer jammed. Which jacket fits you? Half the shops were closed.

See: Articles, Adjectives & Objects

Preposition
A word relating a noun phrase to the rest of the sentence. Coarse ADP, fine IN. She sat on the chair. A letter from my aunt arrived.

See: Prepositional Phrases

Subordinating conjunction
A word that makes a clause dependent on another. Coarse SCONJ, fine IN or WRB. We left because it rained. Ask whether the shop is open.

See: Adverb Clauses

Phrasal verb
A verb plus a particle acting as one unit — take off, give up. The particle is RP. The plane took off late. She looked the word up.

See: Function Word Relations

Practice on a real sentence

Two prepositional phrases, so IN and DT each appear twice — the button stays live after the first correct answer and its count tells you how many remain. Both prepositions are ADP on the coarse scale; a noun phrase follows each.

Loading the practice sentence…